Enteric bacterial pathogen detection in southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) is associated with coastal urbanization and freshwater runoff | Veterinary Research, a journal on Animal Infection

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Table III.

Environmental factors influencing detection of pathogenic bacteria or protozoa in sea otters and freshwater or marine invertebrates from coastal California.

Pathogen group	Sample type	Risk factor
Pathogen group	Sample type	Freshwater runoff	Coastal urbanization	Municipal sewage	Other anthropogenic sewage sources	Domestic animal waste	Wet season	Recent precip.	Water temp. > 12 °C	Reference
Fecal enteric bacteria	Freshwater clams	–	–	–	–	–	↓, ±, *, †	–	–	[28]
Salmonella, Campylobacter	Marine invertebrates	↔	↔	–	↑	↑	↑	↓	↓	[28]
Clostridium perfringens, C. difficile	Sea otters	↑	↑	±	–	–	↑, ↔	–	–	Current study
Estuarine/marine bacteria	Freshwater clams	–	–	–	–	–	↓	–	–	[28]
Vibrio cholerae, V. parahemolyticus	Marine invertebrates	↔	↔	–	↑	↑, ↓	↓, ↔	↓, ↔	↑, ↔	[28]
V. alginolyticus, P. shigelloides	Sea otters	↑, ↔	↑, ↔	±	–	–	↓, ↔	–	–	Current study
Protozoa	Freshwater clams	–	↔	↔	–	–	↑	↔	–	[26]
Cryptosporidium	Marine invertebrates	↑	–	–	↔	↔	↔	↑	–	[27]
Giardia	Freshwater clams	–	↔	↔	–	–	↑	↔	–	[26]
Toxoplasma gondii	Sea otters	↑	↔	↔	–	–	↔	–	–	[23]
Sarcocystis neurona	Sea otters	↑	–	–	–	–	↑	↑	–	[25]

*, ↑ = Exposure to the risk factor resulted in an enhanced risk of bacterial detection; ↓ = Exposure resulted in a decreased risk of detection; ↔ = No affect on risk of detection; ± = Dataset insufficient to evaluate associations; – = Not evaluated; and † = In cases where > 1 possible outcome is listed, outcomes varied by bacterial species or group.